Learning from the Fashion Industry Essay Example

Learning from the Fashion Industry Essay CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY ELEFTHERIA DIMITRAKOU LEARNING FROM THE FASHION INDUSTRY: A STRUCTURED LITERATURE REVIEW CRANFIELD CENTRE FOR LOGISTICS SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT MSc THESIS CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY CRANFIELD SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT CRANFIELD CENTRE FOR LOGISTICS SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT MSc THESIS Academic Year 2006-2007 ELEFTHERIA DIMITRAKOU Learning from the Fashion Industry: A Structured Literature Review Supervisor: Dr. Chris Morgan August 2007 This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science  © Cranfield University 2006. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright owner. ABSTRACT This research study is a Structured Literature Review focused on identifying the learning points which can derive from the fashion industry regarding supply chain management solutions. Manufacturing, distribution and marketing issues that enable a more robust analysis of the sector are investigated. A review of business models used by companies in the fashion industry is conducted to gain insights into the way that fashion firms manage demand. An extensive review of the literature reveals that the fashion industry is marketorientated and characterised by short life cycle products and low demand predictability. Lead time reduction enables the development of flexible manufacturing and logistics systems. Short lead times enable reduction of forecast errors and improvement of supply chain responsiveness towards volatile market conditions. The main supply chain solutions in the fashion industry are based on quick response, fast fashion, agile, lean and leagile concepts. We will write a custom essay sample on Learning from the Fashion Industry specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Learning from the Fashion Industry specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Learning from the Fashion Industry specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Use of information technology, automated manufacturing systems, production and distribution planning based on real-time demand and transparency of information across the whole supply chain are some of the primary characteristics of the fashion supply chains. In the light of the unpredictable and volatile nature of the fashion industry, this is considered to be worth noting. Based on the segmentation of the industry in terms of volumes and varieties, a model presenting the structure of the sector and the different supply chain approaches is developed. The model allows a comprehensive analysis of the way that the fashion industry works, in terms of manufacturing, distribution and marketing operations, in different volumes/variety levels and product characteristics. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Chris Morgan, for his guidance and support. His willingness to discuss and advise benefited the completion of this study. I would also like to thank the members of the advisory group who contributed to this study. Especially, I would like to express my appreciation to Mr Sanaul Mallick, for his availability and contribution. I would also like to thank my friends at Cranfield University and in Greece for their support during this demanding year. Last but not least I would like to express my gratitude to my family for their everlasting trust and support. ii â€Å"True knowledge exists in knowing that you know nothing†. â€Å"And in knowing that you know nothing, that makes you the smartest of all. Socrates (469 BC 399 BC) iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION.. 1 1. 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 2 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH .. 1 1. 2. 1 Background to the fashion industry 1 1. 3 IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC .. 3 1. 4 AIM OF THE PROJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH .. 4 1. 5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT .. 4 1. 6 RESEARCH QUESTION .. 1. 7 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH .. 5 1. 8 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS 6 CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY. 8 2. 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2. 2 DEFINITION OF STRUCTURED LITERATURE REVIEW (SLR) 8 2. 2. 1 Differences between Structured Literature review and Traditional Review. 9 2. . 2 Advantages of the Struc tured Literature Review 10 2. 3 STRUCTURED LITERATURE REVIEW PROCESS.. 10 2. 3. 1 Mapping the study field (Stage 1) .. 11 2. 3. 2 Developing the search strategy (Stage 2) 13 2. 3. 3 Assessment of the literature (Stage 3).. 20 2. 3. 4 Material Analysis (Stage 4) 2 2. 3. 5 Synthesis of the material (Stage 5). 22 CHAPTER 3 DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS. 23 3. 1 INTRODUCTION . 23 3. 2 CONTENT DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS ACADEMIC PAPERS .. 23 3. 3 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE IDEAS ACADEMIC PAPERS 25 3. 4 JOURNAL CLASSIFICATION- ACADEMIC PAPERS .. 28 3. AUTHORS’ CRITERION ACADEMIC PAPERS .. 30 3. 6 TYPE OF STUDIES- ACADEMIC PAPERS .. 31 3. 7 GEOGRAPHICAL ORIGIN ACADEMIC PAPERS .. 34 3. 8 OTHER PAPERS SOURCES NEWSPAPERS/TRADE PUBLICATIONS/REPORTS/WHITE . 35 3. 9 OTHER SOURCES- BOOKS. 36 iv 3. 0 OTHER SOURCES CASE STUDIES .. 37 CHAPTER 4 LITERATURE REVIEW: ANALYSIS OF THE FASHION INDUSTRY 39 4. 1 INTRODUCTION . 39 4. 2 FASHION DEFINITION . 40 4. 3 THE LEVELS OF THE FASHION INDUSTRY.. 0 4. 4 APPAREL CATEGORIES .. 42 4. 5 FASHION INDUSTRY CHARACTERISTICS 43 4. 6 FASHION TRENDS . 43 4. 7 FASHION INDUSTRY SUPPLY CHAIN . 45 4. 8 FASHION LEAD TIMES. 46 4. FASHION SUPPLY CHAIN APPROACHES . 47 4. 9. 1 Quick response (QR). 48 4. 9. 2 Fast fashion concept. 51 4. 9. 3 Lean supply chain.. 54 4. 9. 4 Agile supply chain approach 55 4. 9. De-coupling point approach . 58 4. 9. 6 Leagile supply chain approaches 59 4. 10 GLOBAL VS LOCAL SOURCING . 61 4. 11 MANUFACTURING IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY 63 4. 11. 1 Definition of fashion manufacturing. 63 4. 11. 2 Manufacturing types.. 3 4. 11. 3 Manufacturing operations .. 65 4. 11. 4 New manufacturing trends . 72 4. 12 DISTRIBUTION IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY .. 72 4. 12. 1 Distribution channels 73 4. 12. 2 Retail buying process . 73 4. 12. Retail logistics 75 4. 12. 4 Supply chain relationships.. 78 4. 13 MARKETING IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY .. 83 4. 13. 1 Definition of fashion marketing .. 83 4. 13. 2 Fashion marketing in practice.. 83 4. 13. 3 Fashion marketing rocess. 85 4. 13. 4 The role of consumer behaviour in marketing.. 89 4. 13. 5 Marketing communication.. 92 4. 14 SUMMARY . 93 CHAPTER 5 BUSINESS MODELS IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY 96 5. 1 INTRODUCTION . 6 v CASE STUDY 1 96 GUCCI’S AGILE SUPPLY CHAIN . 96 CASE STUDY 2 99 MARKS AND SPENCER’S REFINED SUPPLY CHAIN 99 CASE STUDY 3 . 03 ZARA’S FAST SUPPLY CHAIN 103 CASE STUDY 4 . 111 TESCO: THE GROWTH OF SUPERMARKET FASHION . 111 5. 2 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CASE STUDIES 115 5. 3 SUMMARY . 119 CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION.. 120 6. INTRODUCTION .. 120 6. 2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODEL .. 120 6. 4 DISCUSSION OF THE PROPOSED MODEL .. 123 6. 5 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS IN TERMS OF THE AIM OF THE SCOPE . 129 6. 6 CRITIQUE OF THE RESEARCH .. 134 6. 7 FURTHER RESEARCH 36 REFERENCES . 137 APPENDICES 148 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. 1: Thesis structure . 7 Figure 2. 1: SLR implementation process 11 Figure 2. 2: Field scope- main elements of the S LR 12 Figure 2. : Snowball search strategy 19 Figure 3. 1: Percentage of each content area. . 24 Figure 3. 2: Percentage of SCM/Logistics and marketing in the fashion industry. 25 Figure 3. 3: Percentage of SCM/Logistics and marketing in the apparel industry. 25 Figure 3. : Articles per year. 26 Figure 3. 5: Articles referring to apparel and fashion industry per year. 26 Figure 3. 6: The evolution of the fashion sector. .. 27 Figure 3. 7: The evolution of the apparel sector. .. 27 Figure 3. 8: Percentage of articles per Journal 29 Figure 3. 9: Authors who have written journal articles focused on the clothing/apparel industry and supply chain. . 31 Figure 3. 10: Theoretical/ Conceptual studies 32 Figure 3. 11: Theoretical/ Conceptual studies per year.. 32 Figure 3. 12: Analogy for studies per year for the fashion sector.. 33 Figure 3. 13: Analogy for studies per year for the apparel sector.. 33 Figure 3. 14: Types of empirical studies. . 34 Figure 3. 15: Percentage of articles per country. .. 5 Figure 4. 1: Route map of the chapter. .. 39 Figure 4. 2: The apparel supply chain 45 Figure 4. 3: Apparel business process. .. 46 Figure 4. 4: Generic supply chain strategies 48 Figure 4. 5: Cycle Time Compression through Quick Response 51 Figure 4. 6: Apparel supply chains.. 3 Figure 4. 7: The foundation for agility in a fashion business .. 56 Figure 4. 8: Approaches to agility in the supply chain 58 Figure 4. 9: De-coupling point locations.. 59 vii Figure 4. 10: Time compression methods in leagile supply chains .. 60 Figure 4. 11: Lead-time and forecast error relation. 62 Figure 4. 12: The fashion flow chart. . 6 Figure 4. 13: Production stage chart for the fashion supply chain. 67 Figure 4. 14: Sourcing types in the fashion industry 78 Figure 4. 15: Sourcing model for fast fashion. .. 81 Figure 4. 16: The fashion marketing process.. 85 Figure 4. 17: The marketing environment. .. 86 Figure 4. 18: Fashion internal market environment. 7 Figure 4. 19: Fashion ex ternal market environment. .. 88 Figure 4. 20: Fashion market environment strengths and weaknesses. .. 88 Figure 4. 21: A model of consumer behaviour .. 89 Figure 4. 22: Drivers of fashion change 90 Figure 4. 23: Maslow’s pyramid. . 91 Figure 4. 24: Brief summary of the literature results .. 5 Figure 5. 1: Business operations in the luxury sector . 98 Figure 5. 2: Gucci’s supply chain. .. 99 Figure 5. 4: Marks and Spencer revival.. 102 Figure 5. 5: Price-fashion brand positioning. .. 104 Figure 5. 6: Zara’s value chain. . 107 Figure 5. 7: Product pre-commitments: Zara vs Traditional Industry 108 Figure 5. 9: UK clothing specialists (Market positioning 2006). 111 Figure 5. 10: Non-food items bought from main supermarket in the last 12 months (January, 2007). .. 112 Figure 5. 11: Where consumers bought clothing from for themselves in the last 12 months (June 2006). 113 Figure 6. 2: Proposed fashion matrix .. 22 Figure 6. 3: Matching supply chains with products .. 128 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 2. 1: Differences between traditional and structured literature review. 9 Table 2. 2: Key words and search strings 13 Table 2. 3: No. of articles in each search string for ABI database 16 Table 2. 4: No. of articles in each search string for EBCO database. . 17 Table 2. 5: Relevant article results per database. . 21 Table 3. 1: No. f articles per Journal and star ranking. 28 Table 3. 2: Number of articles and year of publication per Journal. 30 Table: 3. 3: Number of articles per country 35 Table 3. 4: Other sources (newspapers etc. ) . 36 Table 3. 5: Book results. . 37 Ta ble 3. 6: Case studies results 38 Table 4. 1: UK fashion retail seasons. . 44 Table 4. 2: QR benefits 50 Table 4. 3: Differences between traditional and â€Å"fast fashion† retailing. . 54 Table 4. 4: Product characteristics for lean and agile supply chains 58 Table 4. 5: Agile manufacturing principals and benefits.. 71 Table 4. 6: Fashion supply chain relationships . 83 Table 4. 7: Two views of fashion marketing. 4 Table 4. 8: The fashion marketing concept. 85 Table 4. 9: Fashion industry levels 94 Table 4. 10: Product classification . 94 Table 5. 1: Marks and Spencer product ranges. . 103 Table 5. 2: Key differences between Zara and traditional retailer’s business model. . 110 Table 5. : Companies’ characteristics.. 116 Table appendix-A: No. of articles in each search string for Emerald database. 148 ix LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Search Result of Databases .. 148 Appendix B: Questionnaire- Interview notes 149 Appendix C: Garment Production Process 152 x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CAD- Computer Assisted Design CAM- Computer Assisted Manufacturing CMI- Co-Managed Inventory DC- Distribution Centre EDI- Electronic Data Interchange EPO- Electronic Point of Sale IT- Information Technology JIT- Just-In-Time MRP- Material Requirements Planning NOS- Never-out-of-stock PDM- Product Data Management POS- Point of Sale QR- Quick Response RFID- Radio Frequency Identification SCM- Supply Chain Management SKU- Stock Keeping Unit SLR- Structured Literature Review SR- Systematic Review TQM- Total Quality Management UPC- Universal Product Code UPS- Unit Production System 3PL- Third Part Logistics xi Chapter 1 Introduction CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to provide a prologue to the research. The background and the importance of the research are presented. The aim, the objectives are stated and the research questions are developed. Finally, the structure of the thesis and the scope are covered. 1. 2 Background to the research Recent business trends have been characterised by demand unpredictability, fast moving markets, expansion of product variety, short product life cycles, increased outsourcing, globalisation and explosion of information technology (Lee, 2002). Therefore, how to be successful in today’s rapidly changing environment is a key issue for many companies across different industries (Tang, 2005). According to Christopher (2005), today it is not companies that compete but supply chains. Supply chain management has been regarded as one of the main areas for companies to enhance competitive advantage (Lee, 2002). Consequently, companies have had to learn how to make critical decisions that would affect not only their present performance, but also their future success (Tang, 2005). 1. 2. Background to the fashion industry The fashion industry has faced many changes in terms of supply chain management during recent years. These changes emerged due to the characteristics of the market. In the past fashion retailing was dominated by several large retailers which increased the competition levels in the market (Barnes and Lea-Greenwood, 2006). 1 Chapter 1 Introduction During the 90’s, firms such as New Look and supermarkets s uch as Tesco, heavily influenced dominant fashion retailers’ markets and traditional market shares. Many retailers, in order to survive; moved production towards low wage, overseas countries. These countries offered cost efficiencies, and enabled these retailers to be focused on price competition. However, the overall result of this strategy has led to long lead times, and inflexible and complicated supply chains. This cost efficiency did not always ensure supply chain effectiveness due to the distance between the production and consumption points. Consequently, speed to market and quality levels were decreased (Bruce and Daly 2006; Barnes and Lea-Greenwood, 2006; Birtwistle et al. , 2003). The situation became worse due to the changes in the fashion market, such as consumers’ attitudes, lifestyles and the information explosion. The information explosion enabled consumers to be well informed of the trends around the globe and they became wiser about what they demanded. Entering the 21st century many firms such as Zara, recognising these changes, moved their focus from cost efficiencies to faster responsiveness to the trends and demand, and decrease of time to market performance (Hines, 2007b; Barnes and Lea-Greenwood, 2006). Nowadays, the fashion industry is characterised by aggressive competition levels. In the light of this high competition, fashion companies have to present not only price benefits for the consumer but also be focused on â€Å"newness† and constant â€Å"refreshing† of their product ranges (Hines 2007b; Hoffman, 2007; Barnes and Lea-Greenwood, 2006). Today’s retailers recognise that the customer is king. However, regarding the fashion sector, the customer is ever more fickle, impatient and fussy, and that leads to even more complications for the supply chain management. Michael Barrat, Retailer Researcher Director at AMR Research said that â€Å"information and trends are moving around the globe at speeds we have never seen before. As a result the consumer has more options and thus shops more often† (Hoffman, 2007, p. 1). Due to these challenges the supply chains in many cases have been reconstructed with the aim of serving the customer in a highly timely manner. 2 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. 3 Importance of the topic There are a number of factors behind the author’s decision to choose this topic as the thesis project. The decision was based on the fact that this sector presented interesting supply chains based on time dependence. Fashion markets have long attracted the interest of researchers. In terms of supply chain management there was a challenging sector which had been beset by the problems of volatility and demand unpredictability (Christopher and Peck, 1997). The fast pace of the fashion industry was a great challenge for companies involved in this sector. Across the seasons trends were changing. Thus the success or failure of a fashion company depended on effective purchasing decisions, inventory planning, manufacturing efficiency and product delivery. So in this case time urgent was fundamental. Those companies that assured product availability within days were regarded as the market winners (Worthington, 2006). In the fashion industry, pipelines have been notoriously long, inflexible and complex. Consequently, long buying cycles have been developed, resulting in inappropriate structures for the requirements of the modern fashion industry. Moves to improve supply chain responsiveness in the fashion industry have been made with the introduction of concepts such as quick response, Just-in-Time systems and agile philosophies (Bruce and Daly, 2007; Hines, 2007b). A review of business odels developed from companies such as Zara and Gucci and several others, has signalled that the fashion industry had successful supply chain solutions which were able to effectively meet consumer needs. Therefore, there were potential solutions and techniques that other industries might consider to improve the way in which they organised and managed their supply chain operations (Gutgeld and Beyer, 1995). 3 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. 4 Aim of the project and objectives of the research AIM: The aim of the research is to identify opportunities for other sectors to learn from the fashion industry. OBJECTIVES: The thesis has three objectives. Firstly, to review the literature on the theory and implementation of supply chain and marketing processes in order to identify the extent to which the fashion industry is able to create, anticipate and keep abreast of consumer demand. Secondly, to undertake case study reviews to identify the business models used by companies in the fashion industry, e. g. Zara and Gucci, that enable them to meet consumer needs. Finally, through analysis and synthesis to identify lessons that other industries can gain from such fashion retailers in how they organise and manage their supply chain operations. . 5 Scope of the project The fashion industry includes the design, manufacturing, marketing and sale of clothes, footwear and accessories. Nevertheless, in the literature or in the media, it is common when referring to the fashion industry to regard it as a clothing sector (Jackson, 2007). For that reason the focus of this research is on the garment ind ustry. Consequently, issues not related to the garment industry such as fibre, yarn and fabric manufacturing are excluded from the scope of the project. Whilst the research is primarily focused on fashion products, basic products that are not considered as fashionable are eviewed as well in order to develop a more comprehensive and holistic analysis of the total apparel product spectrum. The scope 4 Chapter 1 Introduction includes analysis of the fashion industry structure in general and the characteristics of several participants. Specifically, the analysis embraces common supply chain solutions in the industry such as quick response and agile approaches, as well as the type of relationships across the different actors in the pipeline. Referring to processes, a description of the manufacturing, distribution and marketing of fashion items is undertaken. Specific marketing issues are not included in the analysis. The scope of this project includes an evaluation of the theory through case study analysis. The purpose of this is to identify the ways that companies use in practice so as to meet demand. The case study review enables a comparative analysis across different investigated companies in terms of possible similarities and differences. Finally, the scope includes the development of a model which enables the author to crystallise the whole industry in terms of levels and products, and the related supply chain issues in each stage. 1. Research question Based on the objectives, the research question of the thesis is: â€Å"Why is the fashion industry able to provide lessons to other industries? † The fulfilment of this question is based on the answer of another question which is: â€Å"How do the several actors in the fashion industry organise and manage their supply chain operations? † 1. 7 Methodology of the research The logic of the research is based on a structured literature review. Descriptive analysis of the literature material is conducted along with critical review of the thematic contents of the literature findings, with he aim of discovering potential literature gaps. The literature review is based on academic papers and books. However, trade publications, 5 Chapter 1 Introduction newspapers and case studies are reviewed due to the nature of the topic. This enables the author to gain a more holistic and robust approach towards â€Å"real-world† issues. 1. 8 Structure of the thesis The thesis is structured as follows (Figure 1. 1) Chapter 1 The aim of this chapter is to develop an initial engagement with the reader of the broad field of the study and further focus on the research problem. The aim, the objectives and the scope of the project are outlined. Chapter 2 In this chapter the methodology adopted by the author in order to approach the research is outlined. A description of the implementation process is developed. Chapter 3 In this chapter, there is a descriptive analysis of the literature related to the fashion sector in terms of supply chain and marketing issues. The description particularly refers to the characteristics of the selected articles based on a set of criteria which are highlighted in chapter 3. Chapter 4 The content of this chapter is the review of the academic literature to gain insight into the fashion industry. This thematic section refers to the first objective of how the fashion industry works towards consumer demand. Chapter 5 In this chapter case study reviews are conducted. Identification of the business models used by companies in the fashion industry is developed. This thematic section aims to approach the second objective. 6 Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 6 This chapter is divided in two sections. Firstly, it aims to consolidate the main findings in the literature review (from the two previous chapters) and develop a comprehensive model of how the fashion industry is structured and works. Secondly, it refers to the reflection of the overall work in order to define the main supply chain strategies and related tools adopted in the fashion industry and can be the base for providing lessons to other industries. Furthermore, it includes evaluation and review in terms of strengths and limitations of the research and proposes further future research. Figure 1. 1: Thesis structure Source: Author 7 Chapter 2 Methodology CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY 2. 1 Introduction The underlying thinking of the overall methodology strategy adopted in this project is to critically review the literature in the light of the three objectives of the thesis (See paragraph 1. 4). This chapter presents the methodology which has been chosen to meet the stated objectives. As the title declared, the thesis is a Structured Literature Review (SLR) by nature. In so doing, the definition of the SLR is presented along with its differentiation from a traditional literature review. Finally, the advantages of the SLR and the implementation process are demonstrated. . 2 Definition of structured literature review (SLR) The structured literature view is an evolution of the Systematic Review (SR). These two approaches present similar characteristics, but their differences are based on the implementation process. According to Morgan (2007, p. 2) the systematic literature review is more rigorous than the SLR. Maylor and Blackmon (2005, p. 98) de scribe the literature review as â€Å"a process of finding more about a research topic, in particular a theoretical problem it is the record of other people’s research†. According to Morgan (2007, p. ), â€Å"a (Structured) literature reviews are a method of making a sense of a large body of information, a †¦ method of mapping out areas of uncertainty†¦ and a way to tell the difference between real and assumed knowledge. They are methodologically sound (and lead to)†¦ results (that give) †¦. a good representation of the ‘truth’†. Denyer (2002, p. 14) states that SR is â€Å"a review of the evidence on a clearly formulated question that uses systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant primary research, and to extract and analyse data from the studies that are included in the rearview†. Finally, Boaz, Ashby and Young (2002, p. 2) define that the SR approach â€Å"acknowledges the large body of existing research and seeks to synthesize the findings from all relevant studies†. 8 Chapter 2 Methodology 2. 2. 1 Differences between Structured Literature review and Traditional Review The Systematic Literature Review (and consequently SLR mentioned before as an evolution of the systematic) is based on spotting the phenomena and is focused on a more â€Å"replicable, scientific and transparent process, ( , that aims to minimize bias through exhaustive searches of published and unpublished studies † (Cranfield Online, 2007). In comparison, in the traditional approaches of the literature review, the author included merely subjective information and thus irrelevant information, which did not fit in the research content, was excluded (Denyer, 2002). Regarding the traditional literature review, it was focused on a specific investigated area and did not provide detai led critical analysis to the degree that SLR did. The following table (2. 1) illustrates the major differences between these two areas. Structured Literature Reviews Scope of study Narrow Review question Organising the study Identifying studies Selecting studies Synthesising study results Clear, well-developed question/hypothesis Structured, clear process Rigorous and comprehensive search of published and unpublished information Pre-determined inclusion and exclusion criteria of studies Conclusion based on the most methodologically sound studies Traditional Reviews Wide General discussion, often without a developed question or hypothesis Unplanned/unfocused, permits creativity Searching is probing. Usually doesn t locate all the literature. Reasons for the inclusion and exclusion of studies may not be explicit No differentiation between methodologically sound and unsound studies Table 2. 1: Differences between traditional and structured literature review. Source: Nikolaidi, (2006). So the main difference between the structure literature review and the traditional approaches of literature review is the systematic approach of the SLR. Furthermore, traditional approaches have been deemed as solely descriptive without providing any new information, as well as lacking of any critical assessment (Tranfield et al. , 2003). 9 Chapter 2 Methodology 2. 2. Advantages of the Structured Literature Review The main advantages of the structured literature review are, firstly, that the evidencebased approach offers a scientific and objective quality to the research. Secondly, there is an effective way to draw together and analyse extensive literature, as well as, eliminate any bias and error issues (Tranfield et al. , 2003; Denyer, 2002 ). The author chose the structured literature review as a methodology approach due to the fact it enables the connection of the existing research information and the development of an overall view of the research area via a reliable and valid route. A further reason for selecting SLR, apart from the fact that it constitutes a resourceful technique, is that it enables the integration of all the research areas under investigation, such as the fashion industry, general apparel sector and supply chain management. 2. 3 Structured Literature Review Process In general the steps followed to develop a structured literature review are: 1. Scope the field 2. Develop the research strings 3. Determine the research areas 4. Review the results 5. Conclude the findings The following diagram (2. ) depicts the implementation process of the SLR through which the research is developed and the thesis is accomplished. The sequence of the stages is continuous and each phase is interdependent with the following one. 10 Chapter 2 Methodology Stage 1 Focus of the Investigation Stage 2 Search Strategy High level Stage 3 Assessment of the Literature Material Analysis Low level Stage 4 Stage 5 Material Synthesis Figure 2. 1: SLR implementation process Sourc e: Adapted from Morgan, (2007), Lecture notes. 2. 3. Mapping the study field (Stage 1) The main elements of the structured literature review are supply chain, logistics and fashion industry. These three elements were the starting point in the attempt to explore and comprehend the objectives and border the research scope. The fashion industry was reviewed in terms of supply chain management and logistics operations with the aim of identifying the way that the industry is structured and operated and the main value points that might provide lessons to other industries. 11 Chapter 2 Methodology Supply chain Fashion industry Logistics Figure 2. : Field scope- main elements of the SLR Source: Author. The first objective, which is related to the fashion industry and the way of managing customer’s demand, was covered by reviewing the literature area where the three cycles (figure 2. 2), fashion industry, supply chain and logistics overlap. However, apart from a holistic review of the supply chain, particular issues such as manufacturing, distribution and marketing of fashion items were assessed in detail. The second objective which was related to the identification of business models followed in the fashion industry was approached through case study analysis. A model development enabled the synthesis and the analysis of the fashion industry in a comprehensive way. At this point, worth noting was that the term fashion industry was used with a broad meaning, including the general apparel industry as well. Finally, the above described step was considered to be fundamental in identifying the domains that the research covered, spotting possible overlaps between them; developing the research questions and justifying the investigating approach (Morgan, 2007). 12 Chapter 2 Methodology 2. 3. Developing the search strategy (Stage 2) The aim of this phase is to identify all the relevant studies for the issues investigated and develop a set of arguments with the aim of elucidating the design of the research and giving reasons for decisions taken. Identification of the search strings The literature research started by identifying key words and by developing the search strings (Tranfield et al. , 2003). The searching terms were derived by conducting an initial literature review and by discussing these with the supervisor and the sponsor of the thesis. After identifying the key words, the search strings were developed. The following table (2. 2) presents the key words and the search strings. SLR elements Supply Chain Key words Supply chain Demand chain Value chain Fashion industry Apparel industry Fashion goods Fashion items Fashion industry Textile industry Garment industry Clothing industry Footwear Fashion retail Fashion business Logistics Logistics Manufacturing Distribution Marketing Logistics or manufactur* or distribut* or marketing Fashion or apparel or textil* or garment* or cloth* Supply chain or demand chain or value chain Search strings Table 2. 2: Key words and search strings Source: Author 13 Chapter 2 Methodology Identification of the databases The prime resources in order to conduct a structured literature review were the electronic databases. For the purpose of this research three databases were used: ABI/INFORM Trade and Industry (ProQuest) EBSCO Business Source Premier Emerald Library Journals The academic databases ABI/INFORM Global/Trade and Industry (ProQuest) and EBSCO Business Source Premier were regarded as providing the most relevant literature after conducting an initial search with simple keywords. Emerald Library journals offered a narrower range of results. More specifically, after cross checking, the author figured out that the majority of the articles found in this latter database were included in the two former academic databases. These two top potential sources have the following characteristics: ABI/INFORM Global (ProQuest) This included subjects related to management techniques, theory and practice of business, marketing and business and economic conditions. It provided about 2,770 Journal titles (Proquest Online, 2007). ABI/INFORM Trade and Industry (ProQuest) This covered about 1,210 serials in areas related to companies, trends and products (Proquest Online, 2007). EBSCO Business Source Premier This daily updated database included about 8,800 Journal titles with more than 1,100 peer reviewed publications and full-text articles from high quality marketing and management articles. The main fields that it covered among others are management and marketing (Ebscohost Online, 2007). The research of the publications was narrowed down by overviewing only peer reviewed titles in order to ensure a higher level of research credibility. Peer-reviewed 14 Chapter 2 Methodology publications referred to the fact that the articles are reviewed and approved by experts in similar topic areas (Proquest Online, 2007). Search Results The following two tables (2. 3 and 2. 4) illustrate the search results for titles of each database in relation to each search string. The tables refer to the two main academic databases ABI/INFORM Global/Trade and Industry (ProQuest) and EBSCO Business Source Premier. The relevant table for the Emerald database is cited in appendix-A. These tables aim to present all the likely combinations among the literature review elements and search strings by ensuring a higher possibility for appearing relevant to the investigated articles. â€Å"Refine† refers to the number of titles which were peer reviewed. The tables presented the potential articles from each database. However, the author, in order to proceed to the assessment of the literature which consisted of one of the following steps, decided to focus on one search string which was: (a) Supply chain (or) demand chain (or) value chain AND Fashion (or) textile* (or) garment* (or) apparel (or) cloth*. The reason for that decision was that the number of the resulting titles of this search string was manageable by allowing the search to remain broad but not out of scope. So there was no need to narrow it down further. Indeed, by including the additional search string of â€Å"Logistics (or) distribut* (or) manufact* (or) marketing† the resulting titles became even fewer (figures 2. 3 and 2. 4). However, in order to ensure that no valid information was missing these titles were reviewed in brief, during the literature assessment process, and it was discovered that the majority of them were included in the former (a) search string. 5 Chapter 2 Methodology Source: ABI database Supply chain (or) demand chain No. of articles in each search string Supply chain (or) demand chain (or) value chain Fashion Fashion (or) textile* (or) garment* (or) apparel (or) cloth* Logistics (or) distribut* (or) manufact* or marketing 39, 702 Refine: 6436 315 Refine: 71 54,005 Refine: 3,524 177,020 Re fine: 8140 1,291 Refine: 184 (or) value chain Fashion Fashion (or) textile* (or) garment* (or) apparel (or) cloth* Logistics (or) distribut* (or) manufact* or marketing 16,922 Refine: 2972 9,684 Refine: 953 34,616 Refine: 2227 1,164,875 Refine: 110,267 Three search strings together Supply chain (or) demand chain (or) value chain Fashion (or) textile* (or) garment* (or) apparel (or) cloth* Logistics (or) distribut* (or) manufact* or marketing (ABI) Total 719 articles Refine: 120 articles Table 2. 3: No. of articles in each search string for ABI database. Source: Author 16 Chapter 2 Methodology Source: EBSCO database No. f articles in each search string Supply chain (or) demand chain (or) value chain Fashion 30,526 Refine: 7,127 210 Refine: 84 33,458 Refine: 4,063 Fashion (or) textile* (or) garment* (or) apparel (or) cloth* Logistics (or) distribut* (or) manufact* or marketing 104,139 Refine: 9245 885 Refine: 179 Supply chain (or) demand chain (or) value chain Fashion Fashion (or) textile* (or) garment* (or) apparel (or) cloth* Logistics (or) distribut* (or) manufact* or marketing 18,918 Refine: 4, 988 10,920 Refine: 1,403 39,435 Refine: 3,555 ,774,721 Refine: 267,820 Three search strings together Supply chain (or) demand chain (or) value chain Fashion (or) textile* (or) garment* (or) apparel (or) cloth* Logistics (or) distribut* (or) manufact* or marketing (EBSCO) Total 543 articles Refine: 140 articles Table 2. 4: No. of articles in each search string for EBCO database. Source: Author Other sources Other non-academic sources, such as Google scholar and Mintel reports were investigated in order to approach the researching areas more effectively. Furthermore, due to the difficulty of finding enough sources related to the supermarket clothing departments and fashion marketing, these sources, along with books, provided further information. The additional sources that were used were: 17 Chapter 2 Methodology Google scholar Trade Publications (e. g. Traffic World) Newspapers (e. g. Financial Times) Mintel reports Case studies (e. g. Zara, and Marks and Spencer) Reference/ Reports (e. g. Just-Style) White papers (e. g. CFPIM Intentia Americas) Mintel offered efficient information for the clothing and supermarket sectors. Furthermore, books provided very useful information about the examined issues covering both theory and examples from the practice. The latter enabled the author to decide the case studies to be studied. Google scholar, apart from providing some efficient publications, facilitated a first overview of the issues investigated. Furthermore, it provided a good link to a college (London College of Fashion) which deals with the fashion industry. At this point, regarding the process of searching for relevant information about the issues investigated, apart from the development of the key words search, a â€Å"snowball search† was conducted. According to Maylor and Blackmon (2005), â€Å"snowball search† is the review of the reference and the bibliography list of a relevant article in order to discover any previous useful researches and information (figure 2. 3). 18 Chapter 2 Methodology Snowball search Original reference A References to A B C References to B D E F G Figure 2. 3: Snowball search strategy Source: Maylor and Blackmon, (2005). Case studies According to Yin (2003) the case study, as a method, enables researchers to preserve the holistic and meaningful attributes of real life events. These could include, among others, organisational and managerial processes. The primary aim of examining a case study was to identify the business models used in the fashion industry in terms of their supply chain management and the extent to which they enabled them to meet consumer requirements. As mentioned above, books provided information regarding case studies for some companies. Nevertheless, the majority of the case studies were found in the site of ECCH (European Case Clearing House) (ecch. com). Advisory groups The main advisors in the research were the supervisor and the sponsor of the research project. Furthermore, a formal presentation of the progress of the research was conducted on the 6th of June 2007. During this presentation useful recommendations were given by a panel of academics in terms of the issues investigated. Apart from the above mentioned advisors; the group included an academician (Sanaul Mallick, lecturer in corporative strategy) from the London College of Fashion, who contributed to the 19 Chapter 2 Methodology progress of the research by offering useful information and expertise. The interview was based on a semi-structured questionnaire, which was conducted on the 25th of July 2007 at the London College of Fashion. Finally, librarian staff provided assistance in terms of the source searching. 2. 3. 3 Assessment of the literature (Stage 3) In this stage, evaluation of the articles found in the electronic databases was conducted. For the purpose of this process, inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed. The latter was enabled by the initial search which was conducted in the first stages of the research as mentioned before. These pre-determined criteria which were slightly refined during the whole process enabled the avoidance of any bias and possible errors of judgment. According to Morgan (2007), this phase of the structure literature review is divided into two stages: â€Å"high level assessment of the literature† and â€Å"low level assessment of the literature†. High level assessment of the literature Firstly, the high level assessment of the literature review refers to an initial screening of each article’s title and abstract. In this point the inclusion criteria are: Empirical and theoretical studies. No time-frame restrictions. All the related sectors, for example in the broad meaning of apparel sector apart from fashion, basic clothing was taken into consideration as well. No strict geographical restrictions. Respectively, the exclusion criteria were: No relevance to the investigated area. Not written in the English language. The resulting numbers from this brief screening for each database are illustrated in the following table (2. 5): 20 Chapter 2 Methodology Databases ABI (Proquest) EBSCO Emerald Table 2. 5: Rele vant article results per database. Source: Author. No. of possible relevant articles for fashion industry 67 81 37 The above results were referred to the search string (a) and duplications were included. As mentioned before, from the 81 possible relevant articles founded in EBSCO only 49 articles were not included in ABI’s results, and the majority of the articles in Science direct and Emerald were found in the two former databases. As a result, the total relevant articles for the fashion industry which proceeded to low level literature assessment were around 115. Low level assessment of the literature Low level assessment of the literature is regarded as a more detailed and full text screening of the remaining possible relevant articles. In this stage the previous screening of the abstracts enabled the development of more restricted inclusion and exclusion criteria, closely related with the research scope. Inclusion criteria: Fashion industry background. Fashion industry related only to clothing. Supply chain strategies in both sectors and approaches such as Quick Response (QR) and agile. Related logistics operations in each sector including manufacturing, distribution and marketing. Geographical areas: UK, US, Australia; and generally developed countries. Exclusion criteria: Focus on corporate responsibility. 21 Chapter 2 Methodology Focus on related environmental issues. Geographical restrictions. Exclude countries such as India, Sri Lanka and Hong Kong. E-retailing related to internet sales For the fashion industry exclude fabric industry. The estimated final number from academic journals is 51 academic articles. Regarding other information sources the final number is 8 books, 11 case studies, 5 newspapers, 6 trade publications, 2 reference/ reports (including Mintel) and 1 white paper. 2. 3. Material Analysis (Stage 4) The material analysis included the presentation of the chosen articles in a descriptive way. The descriptive analysis referred to the categorisation of the articles in a number of comprehensive ways in order to present the overall analysis of the investigated issue. The descriptive findings are developed in Chapter 3. 2. 3. 5 Synthesis of the material (Stage 5) The approach of the first objective was based on ac ademic articles and books. However, newspapers, trade publications and white papers were used in order to approach the issue in a more robust way. Furthermore, the second objective, the assessing of business models followed in practice, was approached through case study review. Regarding the third objective, based on the literature and case study findings, a conceptual model was developed based on Hayes and Wheelwright (1979) model. The model presented the structure of the fashion industry and the way that the supply chains were organised and managed. This overall process enabled highlighting the learning points from the fashion industry in terms of supply chain strategies and tools. 22 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results CHAPTER 3 DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS . 1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to present a description of the finally selected articles. The descriptive analysis is regarded as findings and contributes to more robust overview of the further thematic analysis. The majority of the descriptive analysis is focalised on the academic papers (total 51 articles). However a brief presentation of the rest of the sources such as case studies and books is undertaken. 3. 2 Content descriptive analysis Academic papers A first review of the papers allowed a classification of the selected articles in terms of content. The four categories that the articles could be categorised into were fashion industry, apparel industry, supply chain management and logistics, and marketing. Supply chain management included manufacturing, suppliers, information issues, relationships and strategies. The following figure (3. 1) presents the percentages of each of these four categories in the total number of articles. Analysis of the fashion and apparel industries separately was conducted. Nevertheless, articles in which the title, the abstract and the keywords referred to apparel or clothing or textile, sometimes referred to fashion, as well. For that reason the classification regarding those two categories was based on the title, the abstract, the descriptors and the main points referred to in the article, reflecting in that way the focused area of each author. 23 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results 4% 29% 31% Fashion Apparel SCM/ Logistics Marketing 36% Figure 3. 1: Percentage of each content area. Source: Author Figures 3. 2 and 3. 3 present a further descriptive analysis of the fashion and apparel industry in terms of supply chain/ logistics and marketing. Regarding the two industries, the majority of the articles referred to supply chain and logistics. However, the percentages of the articles that referred to marketing were more in the fashion than in the apparel industry. But was there a reason for that? The market oriented nature of the fashion industry and the need for effective demand management, indicated that supply chain and marketing issues were both important. In so doing, marketing could be considered as an important factor to the success of a fashion firm; thus attracting the interest of researchers. However, the supply chain management seems to have been the area that has attracted the researchers’ interest more than marketing. This could be explained by the challenging nature of the industry in terms of manufacturing and general logistics issues. 24 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results 25% 75% Fashion SCM/ Logistics Fashion Marketing Figure 3. 2: Percentage of SCM/Logistics and marketing in the fashion industry. Source: Author 6% 94% Apparel SCM/ Logistics Apparel Marketing Figure 3. 3: Percentage of SCM/Logistics and marketing in the apparel industry. Source: Author 3. 3 Historical evolution of the ideas Academic papers In this section the characteristics of the selected articles were described based on chronological criteria. Figure 3. 4 presents the distribution of the articles both in number and percentage during the years. The majority of the selected articles were found after 2000, with more focused on 2006. Figure 3. 5 presents a comparison between the fashion and apparel sectors across the years. 25 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results 14 12 No. of Articles 10 8 6 4 2 0 1979 1989 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 Year No. of Articles Percentage 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Figure 3. 4: Articles per year. Source: Author 00% 90% Percentage of Articles 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1989 1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Years Apparel Industry Fashion Industry Figure 3. 5: Articles referring to apparel and fashion industry per year. Source: Author The following figure (3. 6) presents the distribution of the â€Å"fashion† articles per year. The evolution of the ideas during the years could be that in the 90s most of the articles were referring to general supply chain/logistics and marketing issues whilst in the beginning of the next decade concepts such as quick response and agility became more aggressive. Over the last years, i. e. towards 2005 and 2006, concepts of fast fashion, customer driven, customisation and demand management were deemed as more popular. 26 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results Fashion Industry 60% Percentage of aticles 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1989 1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Years Fashion Industry Figure 3. 6: The evolution of the fashion sector. Source: Author The following figure (3. 7) presents the apparel industry evolution during the years which could be characterised as more mature. Whilst the majority of the articles referring to fashion were found in 2006, the apparel sector presented a more â€Å"smooth† distribution both in number of publications and content. Quick response was always an area of focus. In the recent years, and a reflection on networks, the integration and explosion of technology use was found. Apparel Industry 30% Percentage of articles 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 1989 1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Years Apparel Industry Figure 3. : The evolution of the apparel sector. Source: Author 27 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results 3. 4 Journal classification- Academic papers The following table (3. 1) and figure (3. 8) present the number and the percentage of selected articles in each journal. The ranking in terms of stars was given based on the â€Å"Academic Journal Quality Guide of The Association of Business Schools in 2007†. The majority of the articles, especially for the fashion industry, were derived from the  "Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management†. Journal Title Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management Journal of Enterprise Information Management International Journal of Operations and Production Management Business Strategy Review Supply Chain Management: an International Journal Industrial Management and Data Systems Management Science International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management Supply Chain Europe International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management International Journal of Agile Management Systems The McKinsey Quarterly International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology European Journal of Marketing California Management Review Competition and Change Harvard Business Review Industrial Relations Integrated Manufacturing Systems International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications International Journal of Production Economics Journal of Marketing Management Technology in Society International Journal of Logistics Management The International Review of Retail, Distribution a nd Consumer Research Total No. of Articles 10 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 51 Ranking 1* * 3* 1* 3* 1* 4* 1* N/A 1* 1* N/A N/A 3* 3* 2* 4* 2* 2* 2* 3* 3* N/A 2* 2* Table 3. 1: No. of articles per Journal and star ranking. Source: Author 28 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results 8% 2% 2% 8% 2% 2% 2% 6% 2% 2% 2% 4% 2% 20% 2% 6% 2% 2% 2% 2% 6% 4% 4% 6% 2% Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management Journal of Enterprise Information Management International Journal of Operations and Production Management Business Strategy Review Supply Chain Management: an International Journal Industrial Management and Data Systems Management Science International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management Supply Chain Europe International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management International Journal of Agile Management Systems The McKinsey Quarterly International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology European Journal of Marketing California Management Review Competition and Change Harvard Business Review Industrial Relations Integrated Manufacturing Systems International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications International Journal of Production Economics Journal of Marketing Management Technology in Society International Journal of Logistics Management The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Re search % of Articles per Journal Figure 3. 8: Percentage of articles per Journal. Source: Author The following table (3. 2) presents the journals in combination with the year of publication of each article. In the brackets are the numbers of the articles published each year for each specific journal. At this point it should be noted that there was no exclusion of papers that were a certain number of years old. The reason that most of the papers were published in 2006, especially in the â€Å"Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management† (where the majority of them were found), might be due to the end of the quota system in 2005; which encouraged even more the sourcing in low wage overseas countries such as China (McKee and Ross, 2005). So there might be an interesting investigated area from several authors on the fashion industry. 29 Chapter 3 Descriptive Results Journal Name Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management Journal of Enterprise Information Management International Journal of Operations and Production Management Business Strategy Review Supply Chain Management: an International Journal Industrial Management and Data Systems Management Science International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management Supply Chain Europe International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management International Journal of Agile Management Systems The McKinsey Quarterly International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology European Journal of Marketing California Management Review Competition and Change Harvard Business Review Industrial Relations Integrated Manufacturing Systems International J

Flowers in the Dustbin essays

Flowers in the Dustbin essays The sixties were turbulent times in American culture. With war, racism, and a changing society, the nation needed a way to channel their thoughts and emotions. Music became this channel. Some of the best music in the history of the America came from this time of social insecurity. Creative minds seemed to unite to provide a voice for the people and comfort them in unsure times. With this creativity and social unrest came the use of drugs and the freedom of sex. Music in the sixties helped, hindered, and left us with perhaps one of the most memorable styles of music known to America. Music from the sixties helped the generation cope with many of the puzzling issues that plagued society in this decade. Music gave America motivation for social change, a form of expression, and boosted hopes and morale for our soldiers in Vietnam. The music of any specific era is like a mirror reflecting the concerns of a culture at that specific time. Sometimes it reflects these images in an indirect way, sometimes very directly. The decade of the sixties was a revolutionary and turbulent time for social and political change. The music and musical styles of the sixties reflected American culture and had an effect on the political activism for which the sixties are best remembered. Sixties music can be distinguished from other periods by three main characteristics. First, it reflected the new sexual permissiveness by including obviously sexy lyrics. Second, until the mid-1950's, popular music was aimed at both teenager and their parents. During the sixties, a "youth culture" formed that was distinct from the rest of society. "Third, until the mid-fifties, both popular music musicians and their audiences were overwhelmingly middle-class and white. During the sixties this changed when a number of divergent forces came together to create a new kind of music and a particular audience for that music. One major force was the mass migratio...

Benefit Of Mormon Solution To The Mind-Body Problem Over The Concept Of Dualism, Epiphenomenology, Behaviorism, And Identity

Benefit Of Mormon Solution To The Mind-Body Problem Over The Concept Of Dualism, Epiphenomenology, Behaviorism, And Identity Mormonism: Offering a Solution to the Mind-Body Problem Human beings have physical bodies that can be observed, studied, and predicted. The same cannot be said about the human mind. It is such an intricate, complex thing, and it personally affects every individual on the planet. For centuries, philosophers have been puzzled by its nature. Questions as to whether or not there is a soul, what its relationship is to the body, and how the brain contributes to the mind have perplexed us for millennia. These seemingly unsolvable puzzles are collectively referred to as the mind-body problem. Many of the theories asserted by philosophers fall short in solving this problem. The most pragmatic solution to the mind-body problem comes not from these philosophers, but from a religious philosophy offered by Mormonism. One of the first philosophers to attempt to solve the mind-body problem was Rene Descartes. He sought to understand fully the nature of his own mind, what it was exactly that allowed him to reason and think. After much contemplation, he came to the conclusion that man was a dualistic being—comprised of a material body and an immaterial soul. This theory, referred to as dualism, holds that the soul occupies no space, is not composed of matter, and is an immortal entity. The soul is compared to a ghost residing in and operating the body, a complex machine. He holds that the soul is not â€Å"lodged in the human body exactly like a pilot in a ship, †¦ but that it is necessary for it to be joined and united more closely to the body, in order to have sensations and appetites similar to ours, and this constitute a real man† (Descartes 278). He also claims that â€Å"the soul is of a nature wholly independent of the body, and that consequently it is not liable to die wit h the latter† (Descartes 278). Descartes’ theory implies a life after mortal death; a soul that is immaterial cannot be harmed or destroyed once it is separate from its physical casing. This suggestion is appealing to persons of faith. However, this dualistic theory presents a problem. If the soul is immaterial, it cannot occupy time or space. Yet individual minds seem to exist only within the bodies to which they are connected, and the mind and body function in direct cooperation with one another. An immaterial mind cannot occupy time or space, yet our minds exist within our bodies and our timelines. Descartes’ theory also states that the body and soul interact, but he does not say how; he claims that it takes place in the pineal gland of the brain, but exactly how this interaction takes place there is simply a mystery to be solved. Dualism does not appear to adequately answer the questions of the mind-body problem. After realizing that Descartes’ dualism failed to solve the mind-body problem, philosophers began investigating another theory: phenomenology, or materialism. The basis of materialism is that human beings do not have immaterial minds or souls, but rather experience thought as a result of physical processes. One branch of phenomenology, called Epiphenomenology, takes this to an extreme. David Chalmers hypothesized the possibility that material substance is the only â€Å"mind,† human beings having no consciousness or higher-order cognition. He explains that people could function as computers, only giving pre-programmed responses to external stimuli. Essentially, he theorized that there is no such thing as mind; human beings are merely machinery that has been programmed to give appropriate responses to environmental factors. However, there is one aspect of the human mind that Epiphenomenology fails to explain: altered states of mind. A person can be lost in thought, think ing only of memories or imaginary situations of things to come, and then suddenly become acutely aware of himself and his surroundings. If epiphenomenalism were to hold true, no such thing could possibly occur; epiphenomenological beings have no higher-order cognition and can therefore experience no self-awareness. Individual experience and a distinct sense of self effectively discount the truthfulness of this theory. Another branch of materialism, called behaviorism, ties the meaning of the mind to human behaviors, which are testable and observable. Jerome Shaffer points out that this behaviorist theory is inadequate because â€Å"behavior and behavioral dispositions do not furnish an exhaustive analysis of †¦ mentalistic terms† (Shaffer 285). It is clear that human beings do not actively display every thought that enters their minds; behavior and mind are not one in the same thing. Shaffer presents identity theory as an alternative. Rather than tying mind to behavior, it ties mind to matter. He says that â€Å"thoughts, feelings, wishes, and the rest of so-called mental phenomena are identical with, one and the same thing as, states and processes of the body† (Shaffer 285). Essentially, it claims that thoughts are not only caused by firing synapses inside the brain, but that they are the synaptic firings themselves. This solves the problem of a mysterious, unobservable soul being the root of the mind, as synaptic activity is something that can be studied and monitored with medical technology. Identity theory has problems of its own, however. Paul Churchland says, â€Å"We do not know enough about the intricate functionings of the brain actually to state the relevant identities† (Churchland 317). Identity theorists hold that the mind is physical events occurring in the brain, but no one knows enough of brain function to pinpoint exactly what those events are and what thoughts they cause. Triggering synaptic firing at a particular location in the brain of one might cause one to recall a certain memory, but triggering activity in the same spot on another person’s brain will not bring up the same memory. This inconsistency is not adequately explained by identity theory. Another major issue with identity theory is the fact that thoughts and neural functions are observed as two very different things. A person experiences his own thoughts as memories, wishes, desires, regrets, and emotions. One does not think to oneself, â€Å"Several synapses just fired in my prefrontal cortex.† Rather, one might think, â€Å"That was a lovely trip to the beach. How I would love to go back.† The person experiences â€Å"a domain of thoughts, sensations, and emotions, not a domain of electrochemical impulses in a neural network† (Churchland 319). Perhaps the biggest issue with identity theory is the fact that synaptic firing and thought do not occur simultaneously; there is a gap in between the time when a synapse fires and the time when a person experiences thought. If identity theory were to be true, a synaptic firing and a thought would be one and the same thing, meaning they would have to occur at exactly the same time (Cook). Identity theory was an attempt to solve the mind-body problem in a way that would negate the problems set forth by dualism and behaviorism. Shaffer does not hold identity theory as more than a reasonable explanation for a set of observations; he admits that dualism is still entirely in the realm of the possible. In the end, Shaffer was not entirely satisfied even with this theory, admitting that â€Å"there are grave difficulties in attempts to defend such an identification† (Shaffer 291). Perhaps there is another approach to addressing the mind-body problem. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints offers an explanation of the nature of the soul that appears to address the questions left unanswered by the other theories. This â€Å"Mormon phenomenology† combines dualism and phenomenology by stating that there is, in fact, a soul, and it is, in fact, comprised of a material substance. Churchland came closer to this idea than most non-Mormon philosophers with his concept of substance dualism: â€Å"†¦the ghost [in the machine] is a spiritual substance, unlike physical matter in its internal constitution, but fully possessed of spatial properties† (Churchland 307). He continues to speculate the possibility that â€Å"†¦interaction [between brain and mind] can perhaps be understood in terms of their exchanging energy in a form that our science has not yet recognized or understood† (Churchland 308). Mormon theology teaches that humans are tripartite beings, composed of body, intelligence, and spirit. Both intelligence and spirit are composed of matter. What philosophers refer to as the phenomena of mind—self-awareness, thoughts, memories, feelings, wishes, and sensations—are attributed to intelligence and spirit by Mormon phenomenology. Essentially, mind is a greater physical entity composed of a material intelligence and a material spirit or soul. The Mormon prophet Joseph Smith received revelation that is recorded in Doctrine Covenants 131:7-8, stating, â€Å"There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned with purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter.† These verses of Mormon scripture align with Churchland’s speculations regarding substance dualism. Spirit is made of a pure, refined matter that cannot be seen or studie d using today’s scientific technology. The fact that we are not yet able to see this spiritual matter does not negate the possibility of its existence; we cannot see the particle that causes the force of gravity, and yet evidence leads us to believe in its reality. The same is true of the spirit; compelling evidence is persuasive enough to inductively argue for its existence. The Mormon notion of the soul includes the idea that it is eternal, not unlike Descartes’ notion of an immortal soul. â€Å"Man was also in the beginning with God. Intelligence †¦ was not created or made, neither can be† (DC 93:29). Our intelligences and spirits have always existed. If intelligence cannot be created, it is reasonable to assert that, like matter, it cannot be destroyed. Mormon phenomenology holds that spirits are eternal and will therefore continue to live after the death of physical bodies. â€Å"For man is spirit. The elements are eternal, and spirit and element, inseparably connected, receive a fullness of joy† (DC 93:33). During this life, the spirit and the body are inseparably connected. The spirit and the body are intertwined and make up a single physical entity with a distinct identity. This notion solves the problem of Descartes’ mysterious, independent soul and the â€Å"ghost in the machine† explanation. The mind-body problem â€Å"is answered by the material nature of spirit† (Riddle 1079). Descartes’ dualist theory suggests that body and spirit are two separate parts of a single being, but this raises the question of how an immaterial soul could possibly occupy time and space. He gives no adequate explanation for how the soul would be tied to the body or how the two would interact. Mormon phenomenology asserts that the body and soul are indeed two different parts of a person, but that both are material and occupy the same physical entity. A physical spirit could very logically be connected to and reside within a material body. Shaffer’s theory fails to address the discrepancies between neural activity and states of mind; Mormon phenomenology takes into account a spirit as another governing entity of the human mind. The notion of a physical spirit also offers an explanation as to why there is a gap between neural impulses and mental activity. The electric charge that passes through the synapse must also go through the spiritual matter that potentially resides somewhere within the brain before it is expressed as a thought, feeling, or sensation. That space of time allows for the spirit to process the thought. This explanation, while logical and pragmatic, is not perfect. As previously mentioned, human beings have not the means nor the ability to observe this highly refined spiritual matter. Given this limitation on our knowledge, we cannot know exactly how the spirit interacts with the body and brain to produce thought, consciousness, and higher-order cognition. There is no deductive proof of the existence of a material spirit, although in this case, inductive reasoning (and lack of other explanations) gives convincing evidence in favor of Mormon phenomenology. As previously mentioned, we have not yet found the graviton, the particle responsible for the force of gravity (Smolin 92). In fact, only 4% of matter in the universe is visible to us (Primack 114). To claim that something cannot exist simply because we cannot see it would be absurd. This Mormon phenomenology implies that there will be an afterlife. If intelligence cannot be created or destroyed, it must live on even after elemental bodies are gone. This notion resonates well with proponents of Descartes’ dualistic theory, as well as with persons of faith. This suggests that there is another place or dimension in which the spirits of the deceased reside, which opens up the possibility of both life in other areas of the universe and different dimensions of reality on planet Earth. This theory also implies that human beings are free moral agents. If a spirit is part of the complex mind, neural impulses are not the sole determinant of thoughts and behaviors. The assertion of a soul leaves room for free will. According to Mormon philosopher Blake Ostler, morally accountable free agents must be able to be a cause of action without being caused to be that, and the only thing that could be such an agent is an eternal intelligence. Nothing causes it to be; it just is, and it always has been. This theory implies that we are not puppets in a deterministic universe, but free moral agents with the ability to choose and control our own behaviors (Ostler). Dualism, Epiphenomenology, behaviorism, and identity theory all appear to fall short in one or more aspects of their explanations; none of these adequately answer the mind-body problem. Mormon phenomenology, with its ideas of a material intelligence and spirit, offers a logical and pragmatic solution to the mind-body problem. Mormonism offers explanations that other theories cannot. In this day and age, this theory not only makes sense, but it appears to be necessary to explain the phenomena of mind.

To investig_te the process of decision m_king th_t le_ds to the Dissertation

To investig_te the process of decision m_king th_t le_ds to the perform_nce of _ project in _n org_nis_tion - Dissertation Example I am also grateful towards my University and my Department, the administrators, faculty members and fellow students for their support throughout this study. DECLARATION I, (Nana), would like to declare that all contents included in this thesis/dissertation stand for my individual work without any aid, & this thesis/dissertation has not been submitted for any examination at academic as well as professional level previously. It is also representing my very own views & not essentially which are associated with university. Signature: Date: 2nd April 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT II DECLARATION III CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 15 2.8.1. Technology-Use Ð °nd Decision-MÐ °king Processes 27 2.8.2. Decision-MÐ °king Process Ð °nd TeÐ °m PerformÐ °nce 28 2.10.1. Environmental FÐ °ctors 31 2.10.2. InternÐ °l FÐ °ctors 32 2.10.3. Decision ApproÐ °ch 32 3.3. Research Method and Appropriateness 44 3.10 Research Instrument 53 3.11 Ethical Considerations 54 Chapter Four: Results and Analysis 57 4.1. Results 57 4.1.1. Conclusion 61 4.2. Analysis 62 4.3. Conclusion 66 References 67 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Overview HistoricÐ °lly, the trÐ °ditionÐ °l view of the strÐ °tegic mÐ °nÐ °gement process, specificÐ °lly strÐ °tegic decision mÐ °king hÐ °s been entrusted solely to the orgÐ °nizÐ °tion's top mÐ °nÐ °gement teÐ °m (TMT) (HÐ °tten & RosenthÐ °l, 2002, pp. ... 112-132). Pech Ð °nd Durden (2004) Ð °rgued thÐ °t "mÐ °ny orgÐ °nizÐ °tions fÐ °il becÐ °use of weÐ °knesses in the decision processes of their leÐ °ders" (p. 66). Pound Ð °rgued thÐ °t "most performÐ °nce crises Ð °re not becÐ °use of incompetence or wÐ °ywÐ °rd mÐ °nÐ °gers, but becÐ °use of fÐ °ilure of judgment" (CrossÐ °n, Fry, & Killing, 2005, p. 121) believing thÐ °t strÐ °tegic thinking is needed throughout the orgÐ °nizÐ °tion, not just Ð °t the top. As Ð ° result, there hÐ °s been Ð ° shift within strÐ °tegic mÐ °nÐ °gement in terms of strÐ °tegic decision mÐ °king, where the trÐ °ditionÐ °l decision-mÐ °king pÐ °rÐ °digm hÐ °s undergone Ð ° trÐ °nsformÐ °tion. In this sense, strÐ °tegic decision mÐ °king is Ð ° subset of the overÐ °ll strÐ °tegic mÐ °nÐ °gement process itself of which leÐ °dership is of pÐ °rÐ °mount importÐ °nce. While pÐ °rt of the sÐ °me whole, there Ð °re subtle distinctions thÐ °t will be dis cussed moving forwÐ °rd Ð °s it specificÐ °lly relÐ °tes to strÐ °tegic decision mÐ °king. Business Ð °nd corporÐ °te leÐ °dership now embrÐ °ces the concept of inclusivessness Ð °s put forth by Floyd Ð °nd Wooldridge (1997). The new Ð °ge of the knowledge worker hÐ °s emerged where Ð °ll knowledge is importÐ °nt Ð °nd of strÐ °tegic vÐ °lue to the orgÐ °nizÐ °tion's leÐ °dership (KÐ °ufmÐ °n, 2003, pp. 325-336; Holt, Self, ThÐ °l, & Lo, 2003, pp. 546-549; RÐ °elin, 2004, pp. 89-94 ; Peters, 2005, pp. 106-109). Involvement of Ð °dditionÐ °l employees needs to be included in the strÐ °tegic decision-mÐ °king process to include this knowledge, regÐ °rdless of where the knowledge comes from or who possesses it, in order for Ð °n orgÐ °nizÐ °tion to sustÐ °in competitive Ð °dvÐ °ntÐ °ge in the globÐ °l

Stocks Perference Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Stocks Perference - Essay Example Also, the company might find it difficult to pay out high interest, as the current global economic scenario is quite uncertain and might turn for worse any day. Once the management trainees are hired, we could decide on a sound strategy and growth pattern for the company and subsequently go in for the public issue after a period of three months at least. This time is required for the trainees to familiarize themselves with the working of the company and think about ways to improve the sales and profits. I would however not recommend having any of the new management grads on the board as the board members must be experienced people with excellent track records. Employee Stock Option is a wonderful tool to retain talented employees and keep them happy. No doubt, this perquisite could be offered to the employees, especially the management trainees who join the company in the next few weeks. â€Å"Technically, under ESOP, a company offers its employees the chance (or option) to purchase a certain number of shares at a future point in time. Generally, these shares are offered at a pre-determined price, which as per the company’s expectations would be lower than the market price at the time when the employee can exercise the option (choose to buy). Of course, the reverse could be true, in which case the options have no value at all.†[Sify Business] In case the employee chooses to leave the company before the vesting period, the stock option ceases to exist and the employee cannot benefit from it. We could keep the vesting period as five years to encourage the trainees to keep working with us. Another advantage with ESOP would be the tax benefit for the company. Since the stocks would be a part of the employee’s compensation package, the employee would have to pay the tax on the amount and we would be saving that amount. If a substantial part of the salary is offered as ESOP, we could be sure of the dedication of the

Essay --

From the 1800s to the 1930s, Japan and India were technologically similar in that both countries increased the use of machines to produce textiles for the cotton industries. They also had economical similarities because the factory workers were all being paid low wages. Despite the similarities, Japan and India socially differed in the dominance of gender among the workers, as well as where the factory workers came from. Japan and India both increased the use of machinery throughout the years. Document 1, 2, and 6 are evidence proving that both countries increase the usage of machines while producing textiles. The Production of Cotton Yarn and Cloth in India chart (Doc 1) shows that the amount of hand-spun yarn decreased, while the amount of machine-spun yarn increases. The amount of machine-made cloth had also increased significantly in 1914. The increase in machine-made and machine-spun textile shows that India is beginning to rely on machines more than hand power. Likewise, the Production of Cotton Yarn in Japan chart (Doc 2) shows that cotton yarn significantly increased from 5 million pounds in 1884 to 666 million pounds in 1914. The Japanese would have to increase the use of machines as well as the use of hand power to maintain the rising number of yarn produced. The increase of yarn is the result of the Japanese developing in the textile industry. Both charts from Document 1 and 2 display tha t Japan and India increased the usage of machines in making yarn. The Indian economist, Radhakamal Mukerjee, in 1916 (Doc 6) states that there has been a decrease in handwoven clothing as handloom weavers are abandoning their looms in India. The reduction of handwoven clothing is an outcome of the increase usage in textile machines. S... ...d-spun yarn. The journal entry of an Indian worker could be helpful, in that it provides a primary source of the life of a textile worker. Since there were entries on Japanese workers (Doc 3), it would only be beneficial to provide one for an Indian worker. This entry can show the differences in how the workers are being paid and treated. Being provided with this information can help further explain the differences between Japan and India’s workers. In conclusion, they both increased the use of machinery to produce the cotton and managed to pay the workers in low wages. However, in Japan, the majority of the workers seem to be women. In India, most of the workers are men. The laborers come from different places and social rankings, depending on the country. Overall, Japan and India have certain similarities as well as differences concerning the cotton industries.

Paterfamilias

Jack DeSantis Western Civilization 3/4/13 The Roman Family â€Å"Familia†, the Latin word for family. This word played a very large role in that of that Roman society. The Roman family is essentially the basic component of Roman society and could also be the archetype of political authority. Without a strong connection and bond in your Familia your family name could not be respected. Everyone in the family had to play his or her own part and had a specific role or purpose to fulfill in order to be a successful family.Whether you were the head of the family, a wife, or a daughter or son, everyone had their own role and duties to execute. There was a very specific hierarchy and structure in which the Roman family was set up. It started with the oldest living male and stemmed down to the children. At the top of the social hierarchy was the oldest living male, usually the father, known as the â€Å"paterfamilias. † This paterfamilias had supreme power within the family, not only in terms of respect but also legally and politically. He held the right to sell family members if he deemed necessary (although rare).Regardless of age, a son was always legally subject to obeying any living Paterfamilias and was also in charge of fulfilling said duties if the current Paterfamilias passed away (eldest son would become the paterfamilias). Although their legal capabilities allowed them to kill a child, wife or any member of the family, most fathers only used this ability as more of a threat than an action. The idea of a strong family bond proved to be valid throughout most familial in that the Paterfamilias for the most part was an affectionate, caring, and kind father.The respect for the Paterfamilias came from the idea of respect for their elders and ancestors. Every patrician belonged to gen, which was essentially a group that lineage back to common ancestor. With that being said all patricians were required to include their â€Å"third name† which ind icated their gens. All Roman males had a person and a family name, yet only the elite and well off would have a middle name. This basically set them apart from everyone else and would indicate their wealth. Similar to most societies of their the time the Roman woman never became independent from their familias.For the most part woman would be considered more of an object than a member of a family. Instead of receiving a personal name like men, a daughter would be referred to by her fathers’ gens. The paterfamilias was only responsible for the first-born daughter in the family. He would be responsible for his wife, son, and daughter yet if second daughter were to be born he could legally renounce her and let her die. Although for the most part abandoned daughters would survive and be raised as slaves.Not only did the paterfamilias have the ability sell his daughter to slavery, kill her either by abandoning her or by actually sentencing her to death as punishment, but he also r eserved the right to marry her off to whomever he pleased. Although it seems that the paterfamilias would not really treat his daughters with respect, for the most part fathers still loved and cared for their daughters. Once married off to other familias, the wives would commonly be among the rest of the family during meals. Unlike classical Greece, woman had much more influence behind the scenes.Husbands would often look to their wives for advice on certain issues being that wives were taught to take an interest in their husband’s lives outside the realm of the household. Divorce was very common among Romans throughout the existence of the empire. Without question if a divorce were to occur the father would retain custody of the children. An article titled â€Å"Roman Family Structure† quoted that, â€Å"In later years, women had the choice of retaining loyalty to their birth family or their husband's family. They also had expanded rights to seek divorce themselves; but, the children still remained with the father's family. In later years is in reference to the fact that women’s status underwent changes throughout the Roman empires period of domination (750 BC to 480 AD). The son was given the responsibility of carrying on the family name by marrying a woman (most likely in the same social class) and reproducing an heir. A son was also given the responsibility of carry out any and all tasks his paterfamilias asks of him. If the paterfamilias were to pass away (usually around ages 30-40) the eldest son would take on the responsibilities of the head of the family.This would only take place if he were the eldest male member of the family. Not only did blood relatives take part in the familia. Almost every Roman household contained a large family but also at least one slave. Whether you were a patrician or a plebian it was seen as a necessity to own a slave. Most slaves would be in charge of taking care of household tasks. Such as cooking, c leaning as well as gardening. If intelligent enough and actually literate (not common) slaves would also tutor children and help them with their studies. In some households slaves would be treated like family and given certain rights.Most Romans believed in the idea that if a slave were treated well they would work harder than if they were treated poorly. Although all the statistics point to the paterfamilias having supreme right over everyone, only in times of need and punishment would the paterfamilias use their rights. Otherwise he would be a loving, caring father figure who also tried to do what was best for his family. This is all thanks the Roman morals as well as beliefs that through a strong family bond, they could acquire and hold power. Many of these beliefs as well as morals have been passed down to our society today such as a strong family bond.